In 1802, fourteen years after the arrival of the First Fleet in Sydney Cove, a small band of free men and women from Scotland and Northern England emigrated to New South Wales. Selecting their promised grants of land on the Hawkesbury River below Windsor, they began the Herculean task of fashioning a home with primitive tools in virgin bush as yet untrodden by white man. To establish their farms on the rich flats along the river banks, they had first to clear the gigantic trees and tangled undergrowth, overlaid with centuries of flood debris, and twisting climbing monkey vines. Having settled their families as comfortably as possible, their first thought was to establish a church and school. Thus only six years after they came to the Hawkesbury they commenced building the stone church at Portland Head, now known as Ebenezer, without Government subsidy or help of any kind. This is now the oldest church building in Australasia in which Divine Service is held every Sunday.[1]
The stories current in England prior to 1802, depicting the struggle for survival at Port Jackson, would not entice men and women to migrate to this convict settlement, which was under military rule, and whose officers, ably abetted by certain merchants, were bent only on amassing a fortune at the expense of the poor settler. Moreover the only means of communication with their homeland was by tiny sailing ships, which had to cross the uncharted Southern Ocean, or round the dreaded Horn. Though they were aware of the hazards of the lonely sea voyage, the immigrants had little knowledge of the austerity of pioneering in a distant virgin land, and though they may have been inspired by the romance of the Pilgrim Fathers 180 years before, yet there must have been some reason touching their lives very deeply for them to leave the homeland, which had been sanctuary to many generations, and to which they were intensely loyal.
In England for several centuries there had been two religious groups - the Roman Catholic Church, and the Church of England - each fearful of the other, and struggling for supremacy. This was further complicated in Scotland where the Presbyterians had been striving for their freedom of worship, and were now involved in the struggle for parliamentary reform and the abolition of the "rotten boroughs" which resulted in the famous trials in 1793 of the Scottish martyrs Muir, Palmer, Skirving and Magarot.[2] In 1662 Parliament passed the Conventicle Act by which all who did not conform to the "thirty-nine articles as set out in the Book of Common Prayer" (Church of England) were classed as "non-conformists", and all religious meetings, other than those of the Church of England, were forbidden under penalty of imprisonment for the first and second offence, and transportation for the third.[3] In 1672, King Charles, of Catholic sympathies, attempted by his Declaration of Indulgence to ease these restrictions on Catholics, and indirectly on Presbyterians. Parliament however vetoed his action and forced Charles to agree to the Test Act, which excluded from public office anyone who did not adhere to the thirty-nine articles.[4] These acts were followed by the Toleration Act of 1699, which granted liberty of worship to those subscribing to thirty of the thirty-nine articles, but by which Catholics, Unitarians and Presbyterians were excluded.[5]
Then in 1721 an act was passed "excusing non-conformists from the penalties which they had incurred under the previous acts. This act was only current for one year, so that from year to year the threat was ever present that the non-conformists could be debarred from holding municipal office and all places of trust, civil or military, in the state. Their children could not attend Oxford University, nor receive degrees, though they might attend Cambridge University. Nor could they be lawfully married except by the ceremony provided in the Church of England Book of Common Order, and to add insult to injury, the legal registration of their children's births depended on baptism by a Church of England clergyman.[6] This persecution was carried to Australia for in the 1800's, the minister of St. Matthew's, Windsor, refused Christian burial to one who had not been baptised, the body "being placed in the south-west corner of the churchyard cemetery".[7]
Samuel Pepys saw some of these victims of the law on their way to the prison hulks and ultimate transportation, and records in his diary. "They go like lambs without resistance. I would to God that they would conform or be more wise and not be catched." But so convinced were these nonconformists of the rightness of their interpretation of the Bible that they would not recant. These laws, then, were the main reason why the pioneers of Ebenezer migrated to Botany Bay, among whom were Davison, Hall, Johnston, Mein and Turnbull- They came in search of that freedom and independence which their forebears, often betrayed and imprisoned, cherished.
I imagine the stark horrors of the French Revolution. its cry of liberty, equality, fraternity, and the rise of Napoleon and threat of war with France, had some bearing on the pioneers' decision to accept the English Government's offer contained in the following document, dated January 1798 which Hall had acquired while living in London:
"We whose names are undersigned acknowledge that, at our own request, we offered ourselves as settlers to go out to N.S.W. with our families on the following terms:
To have our passage found and our families victualled by the Government during the voyage. On our arrival in the Colony we have a grant of 100 acres of land at Port Jackson, or fifty acres at Norfolk Island. To be victualled and clothed free from the Public Stores for a term of
twelve months after being put in possession of our allotments, and to be allowed the labour of two prisoners maintained by the Government for the same term. After which term we and our families are to be no further expense to the Crown. Likewise we have the same proportion of stock, such grain and agricultural tools as have been furnished to other settlers, together with such other assistance as the Governor need judge proper to afford us.
Outfit for men: 1 jacket, 1 shirt, pair of trousers, pair of shoes, 1 hat.
ditto for women: 1 Jacket, 1 petticoat, 1 shift, pair shoes, 1 cap, 1 handkerchief,
Children as above on stores.
Tools; I billhook, tomahawks, 1 spade, 1 handsaw, 2 west Indian hoes, 1 cross-cut saw (between two men), quantity of nails, one iron pot, 1 old musket, quantity of powder and 16 musket balls."[8]
There is little doubt that the five pioneers named above knew each other through worshipping in the Presbyterian Church in London,"[9] and no doubt the idea of migrating to N.S.W. was a frequent topic for discussion. Eventually ten families, comprising eighteen adults and twenty children embarked on the sailing ship Coromandel of 522 tons This little vessel, the size of a Manly ferry, had been built of teak at Chittagong, India, in 1794, and this was her first voyage to N.S.W. Her owners were Reeve and Creer of London.[10]
The Coromandel had been chartered by the British Government primarily to transport convicts and supplies to N.S.W. In addition to the pioneers and convicts, then were also the guard and the crew, in all some 200 persons The ship had to carry sufficient food to last a voyage of at least six months without landfall, as well as supplies for the colony, so there was no space for bulky possessions belonging to the pioneers, especially furniture.
The pioneer party consisted of:
James Davison, his wife Jane Johnston and two sons, John aged 4 and James 3.
George Hall, his wife Mary Smith, three sons, George Smith 7, William 5, John 1 and one daughter Elizabeth 9.
John Howe, his wife Francis Ward, and two daughters, Mary 2, and Elizabeth 2 months.
Andrew Johnston, his wife Mary Beard and five sons, Thomas 11, William 7, John 5, Alexander 2, Abraham 1.
John Johnstone.
Lewis Jones.
James Mein and his wife Susannah Skene.
Andrew Mein.
William Stubbs, his wife Sarah Wingate, son William 5 and two daughters Sarah 4 and Elizabeth 1.
John Suddis.
John Tumbull, his wife Ann Warr, two sons Ralph 10,James 4, and two daughters Mary 5 and Jessica 2.[11]
The pioneers chose the Coromandel because George Hall's uncle, William Stirling, was her captain. The same George Hall kept a diary, and it is from this that the account of the voyage is written.[12]
"Put to sea from Deptford between 12 and 1 p.m., 12 February 1802. But winds being contrary it was not till the next day that the voyage began."
On the 14th both Andrew Mein and Mrs. Johnston became very seasick.
Nine days later Hall records the first quarrel between the pioneers when Mrs. Hall and Mrs. Johnston had "a serious altercation" over the sale of meat in the morning and again between them and the Davisons in the evening. It would seem that Mrs. Johnston was a difficult companion on board ship, as three days later "Mrs. Johnston gets well, takes no notice of the trouble (she had caused) but immediately causes broils as before."
25 February, "Mr. Mein very ill, can hardly walk, this was James Mein's brother Andrew.
28 February, "wrangle between Mrs. Selby and Andre1 Johnston and his wife." Hall does not state what this was about, but in the early part of the voyage Mrs. Johnston seems to have been the centre of much disagreement. This is hardly surprising when she had been sick herself and had five sons, aged from 1 to 11 to be fed, kept amused, and out of harm's way in such a confined space not to mention settling the inevitable quarrels with the other children.
4 March, "Serious quarrel between self and Andrew Johnston concerning the insults of his wife and children Hall and his wife Mary had remonstrated with the Johstons for neglecting their children's eyes, which had running sores. At the same time all the children had scarlet fever from which they recovered.
5 March, the pioneers were becoming very apprehensive of the ship's crew, fearing mutiny, and were dissatisfied with the lack of discipline exercised by the ship's office. As a result one of the convicts was accused of attempting to incite to mutiny other convicts and some members of the crew.
15 March, there was a storm in the night when everyone seized the opportunity to catch as much rainwater as possible. The next day the women washed their clothes probably for the first time since embarking, as on these long voyages fresh water had to be carefully conserved.
16 March, more quarrels between Mr. Johnston a Mary Hall, because the latter was taking a motherly interest in the Johnston children's welfare, since Mrs Johnston was ill and not expected to live.
17 March, "Johnston children again very ill", and when George Hall drew Andrew Johnston's attention to their condition he became abusive and wanted to fight Hall.
At this time the pioneers were amusing themselves catching numerous sharks, one of which was 5ft. 6in. long.
On the 18 March the Coromandel crossed the line, and Hall states that they "celebrated with pales of water thrown over each other."
21 March, in this entry the concern of Hall and his wife for the health of the children, and their fear that the infection might spread from Johnston's child to other children, is vindicated. "Mrs. Johnston's child, Alexander, died at 5.30 a.m. sewn in sail cloth and committed to the deep about 7 a.m. Howe acted as chaplain. The disorder from his eye fell to his mouth and mortified."
On the same day "two sailors were put in irons for threatening the captain." The Captain and Dr. Throsby, the ship's surgeon, then ordered the pioneers to form themselves into two watches to assist in any manner they might think fit to frustrate any attempt at mutiny. Ten days later they sighted the island of Trinidad, which caused great rejoicing, probably because it was the last land they would see for three months till they sailed up the east coast of Tasmania. This Trinidad must not be confused with the Trinidad in the West Indies; it is only an uninhabited outcrop of rock, approximately 1,200 miles east of Rio de Janeiro. By keeping a general southerly course Captain Stirling reached the Southern Ocean, where the trade winds quickly made up for the time lost in the Doldrums south of the Cape Verde Islands.
April 9, on this day the ship ran into a terrific storm during which a huge wave smashed in one of the portholes, and flooded some of the pioneers' cabins, greatly alarming the women. But, though serious at the time, the flooding was brought under control, and the storm was weathered without further mishap. No doubt the men too, and the convicts battened down below decks, would be greatly alarmed in such a storm, knowing that the nearest land, Capetown, was 1,800 miles to the east, with no possibility of any other ships being in the vicinity. The Coromandel was the first ship to attempt to reach Port Jackson non-stop by this route.
April 21, Hall states "a discovery was made by one of the convicts that the prisoners had entered into compact three different times to seize the ship and massacre the people, but could not agree in the method of the undertaking." As no attempt was ever made to seize the Coromandel, apparently the watch formed under Captain Stirling's orders by the pioneers and officers had foiled the convicts' "nefarious designs to murder all who opposed them" and seize the ship.
Though many attempts were made by convicts, sometimes aided and abetted by mutinous sailors and soldiers, to seize the ship taking them to Port Jackson, only one such was successful. This was five years before the Coromandel sailed, when the Lady Shore's military guard mutinied and seized the ship with the aid of the convicts on board when four days out from Rio de Janeiro. They set the twenty-nine loyal men, women and children adrift in the longboat, the captain and the first officer having been killed in the fighting.[13]
28 April, "Mr- Andrew Mein became seriously ill and died at 12.45 p.m., and was committed to the deep at 3.30 p.m. Dr. Throsby read the church ceremony, great solemnity was observed."
6 May, the ship ran into another storm, but the passengers gladly put up with the discomfort, since they were able to replenish their store of fresh water.
18 May, Captain Kemp of the guard declared that "his trunk (had been) broken open and valuables stolen." Suspicion fell on William Stubbs who, on being questioned by the captain, claimed that the shoemaker had had Kemp's coat and pantaloons, which he had made for himself. but was told by the shoemaker to throw them overboard, which he had done. Nothing further came of the incident. It was the culmination of many squabbles bred by cramped conditions, fed by all the fears and misgivings of a lonely voyage, and thereby exaggerated beyond all reason.
How they must have rejoiced when, on the 8 June, they sighted Van Dieman's Land (Tasmania), the first land since leaving the island of Trinidad astern, and knew they were nearing journey's end.
"13 June; near close in by land at daybreak. Passed Botany Bay 8 a.m. came in sight of Port Jackson about 9 or 10 a.m. when we perceived the colours hoisted for us and the pilot came aboard. The ship was worked up the river in the course of the day, we anchored in Sydney Cove about 2 p.m. It is the finest .river I ever saw, and harbour beyond comparison. It would contain the whole navy in the world if it could be assembled with safety, as there are shelters on all sides from the winds,"
The pioneers must have greeted Sydney Cove with mixed feelings. On the one hand they were thankful for their safe arrival, and relieved to be vacating their crowded quarters on board, where for four months disagreements, normally of little consequence, became major issues and death was an ever-present reality. On the other hand their apprehensions intensified as they viewed the scattered settlement along the shores of Port Jackson, and heard at first-hand the tales of debauchery and hardship common to life in the convict colony. They had left their homes - substantial, weatherproof and comfortably furnished - for what? No doubt their dreams of freedom and the promise of farming the rich Hawkesbury flats, kept their spirits high at this time of no return, After three days at anchor, the pioneers' meagre possessions were transferred to boats, which proceeded up the Parramatta River and arrived at Rose Hill at dusk. Here their possessions were to be temporarily stored, but not without misfortune, for Hall writes: "had a large bread bag stole of wheat and other things of value, rum seized by the soldiers, great trouble petting our goods into stores and saving them being stole."
By June 18 the pioneers were settled on their temporary allotments at Toongabbie for on that Sunday they heard Mr. Hassall preach there. He had been sent out to Tahiti as a missionary and carpenter by the London Missionary Association, but went on to Sydney in 1798 where he continued working for the Mission. Later as an itinerant preacher he often visited these same pioneers on their farms on the Hawkesbury.
Governor King directed that the pioneers should settle on portions of the Government Farm at Toongabbie for the remainder of 1802, so that they could plant wheat, maize and potatoes without delay.[14] They drew lots for the small plots, and the following weeks were spent in building "tent huts", felling the timber and breaking up the ground with hoes to plant maize and potatoes.
During the first few weeks at Toongabbie, Hall made a wheelbarrow, and bedsteads for Tumbull, Howe and himself. Then apart from a few entries recording the preparation of the land with hoes and the planting of potatoes and maize, his diary ends, no doubt due to his fatigue after day-long toil, greatly accentuated by being out of condition after the inertia of the four months at sea.
How trying the wives must have found their crude shelters with earthen floors, and rats and spiders for company. They had walls of bark sheets enclosing one, perhaps two rooms, a couple of slabs or blocks of wood for table and chairs, and for a bed a heap of brush and grass in one corner. Outside from a pole supported by two forked sticks, hung an iron pot the sole cooking utensil.
As I reflect on their situation, I realise what brave people were these men and women and I give them credit for their loneliness, hardship, sweat. and pain which has made possible the freedom and affluence my generation enjoys. Agnes Herbertson's poem has meaning for me:
"You who come after them
You shall make gifts to them, you who come after,
From their devoted fight, fields you have tilled,
They shall have part in the annals of laughter,
They shall have part in the temples you build.
You, who come after them, what shall discover,
Love from the deeds they did, youth from their youth,
You shall remember for ever and ever,
You shall remember with gladness and truth."
Agnes Herbertson.
REFERENCES
[1.] Hassall, Roland: M.L., A859, Vol. 1, pp. 275-276.
[2.] H.R.A. Series 1, Vol. 1, p. 463.
[3.] Warner and Martin: Groundwork of British History, Blackie and Son, London, 1912, p.410.
[4.] Ibid., p. 413.
[5.] Ibid., p. 448.
[6.] Ibid., p. 448, note 3.
[7.] St. Matthew's, Windsor, Burial Register, 29 June 1835, 16 September 1847.
[8.] Hall, George: Diary, M.L., A2585.
[9.] Corres.: Wells Presbyterian Church, London.
[10.] Corres.: National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.
[11.] H.R.A., Series 1, Vol. 3, p. 383.
[12.] Hall, George: Diary, M.L., A2585.
[13.] Bateson, Charles: Convict Ships, 1787-1868, Brown Son & Ferguson, Glasgow, first edition, 1959, p. 134.
[14.] H.R.A., Series 1, Vol. 4, p. 245.
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